Abstract

This tutorial reviews various noncontact optical sensing techniques that can be used to measure distances to objects, and related parameters such as displacements, surface profiles, velocities and vibrations. The techniques that are discussed and compared include intensity-based sensing, triangulation, time-of-flight sensing, confocal sensing, Doppler sensing, and various kinds of interferometric sensing with both high- and low-coherence sources.

©2012 Optical Society of America

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2012 (2)

2011 (6)

T. Klein, W. Wieser, C. M. Eigenwillig, B. R. Biedermann, and R. Huber, “Megahertz OCT for ultrawide-field retinal imaging with a 1050 nm Fourier domain mode-locked laser,” Opt. Express 19(4), 3044–3062 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

F. P. Mezzapesa, L. Columbo, M. Brambilla, M. Dabbicco, A. Ancona, T. Sibillano, F. De Lucia, P. M. Lugarà, and G. Scamarcio, “Simultaneous measurement of multiple target displacements by self-mixing interferometry in a single laser diode,” Opt. Express 19(17), 16160–16173 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

P. Wang, G. Brambilla, Y. Semenova, Q. Wu, and G. Farrell, “A simple ultrasensitive displacement sensor based on a high bend loss single-mode fibre and a ratiometric measurement system,” J. Opt. 13(7), 075402 (2011).
[Crossref]

Q. Wu, A. M. Hatta, P. Wang, Y. Semenova, and G. Farrell, “Use of a bent single SMS fiber structure for simultaneous measurement of displacement and temperature sensing,” IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. 23(2), 130–132 (2011).
[Crossref]

E. Shafir, M. Shtilman, E. Naor, and G. Berkovic, “Thermally independent fibre optic absolute distance measurement system based on white light interferometry,” IET Optoelectron. 5(2), 68–71 (2011).
[Crossref]

W. Hortschitz, H. Steiner, M. Sachse, M. Stifter, F. Kohl, J. Schalko, A. Jachimowicz, F. Keplinger, and T. Sauter, “An optical in-plane MEMS vibration sensor,” IEEE Sens. J. 11(11), 2805–2812 (2011).
[Crossref]

2010 (4)

R. Bogue, “Three-dimensional measurements: a review of technologies and applications,” Sensor Rev. 30(2), 102–106 (2010).
[Crossref]

The distance range may be extended by collimating the light from the transmitting fiber; see W. Shen, X. Wu, H. Meng, G. Zhang, and X. Huang, “Long distance fiber-optic displacement sensor based on fiber collimator,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81(12), 123104 (2010).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

P. Wang, Y. Semenova, Q. Wu, and G. Farrell, “A bend loss-based singlemode fiber microdisplacement sensor,” Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 52(10), 2231–2235 (2010).
[Crossref]

A. D. Payne, A. A. Dorrington, M. J. Cree, and D. A. Carnegie, “Improved measurement linearity and precision for AMCW time-of-flight range imaging cameras,” Appl. Opt. 49(23), 4392–4403 (2010).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2009 (3)

2008 (4)

V. Trudel and Y. St-Amant, “One- and two-dimensional single-mode differential fiber-optic displacement sensor for submillimeter measurements,” Appl. Opt. 47(8), 1082–1089 (2008).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. Golnabi and P. Azimi, “Design and operation of a double-fiber displacement sensor,” Opt. Commun. 281(4), 614–620 (2008).
[Crossref]

P. J. Boltryk, M. Hill, J. W. McBride, and A. Nascè, “A comparison of precision optical displacement sensors for the 3D measurement of complex surface profiles,” Sens. Actuators A Phys. 142(1), 2–11 (2008).
[Crossref]

G. Berkovic, E. Shafir, M. A. Golub, M. Bril, and V. Shurman, “Multiple-fiber and multiplewavelength confocal sensing with diffractive optical elements,” IEEE Sensors 8(7), 1089–1092 (2008).
[Crossref]

2007 (8)

A. Rostami, M. Noshad, H. Hedayati, A. Ghanbari, and F. Janabi-Sharifi, “A novel and high-precision optical displacement sensor,” Int. J. Comput. Sci. Network Security 7, 311–316 (2007).

D. Stifter, “Beyond biomedicine: a review of alternative applications and developments for optical coherence tomography,” Appl. Phys. B 88(3), 337–357 (2007).
[Crossref]

E. Shafir, G. Berkovic, Y. Horovitz, G. Appelbaum, E. Moshe, E. Horovitz, A. Skutelski, M. Werdiger, L. Perelmutter, and M. Sudai, “Noncontact ballistic motion measurement using a fiber-optic confocal sensor,” J. Appl. Phys. 101(9), 093107 (2007).
[Crossref]

D. Guo and M. Wang, “Self-mixing interferometry based on a double-modulation technique for absolute distance measurement,” Appl. Opt. 46(9), 1486–1491 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

L. Ren, G. Song, M. Conditt, P. C. Noble, and H. Li, “Fiber Bragg grating displacement sensor for movement measurement of tendons and ligaments,” Appl. Opt. 46(28), 6867–6871 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. H. Ng, X. Zhou, X. Yang, and J. Hao, “A simple temperature-insensitive fiber Bragg grating displacement sensor,” Opt. Commun. 273(2), 398–401 (2007).
[Crossref]

D. Litwin, J. Galas, S. Sitarek, B. Surma, B. Piatkowski, and A. Miros, “Temperature influence in confocal techniques for a silicon wafer testing,” Proc. SPIE 6585, 68050V (2007).

M. Norgia, G. Giuliani, and S. Donati, “Absolute distance measurement with improved accuracy using laser diode self-mixing interferometry in a closed loop,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 56(5), 1894–1900 (2007).
[Crossref]

2006 (8)

E. Shafir and G. Berkovic, “Expanding the realm of fiber optic confocal sensing for probing position, displacement, and velocity,” Appl. Opt. 45(30), 7772–7777 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

W. J. Walecki, A. Pravdivtsev, M. Santos II, and A. Koo, “High-speed high-accuracy fiber optic low-coherence interferometry for in situ grinding and etching process monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 6293, 62930D (2006).
[Crossref]

M. L. Dufour, G. Lamouche, S. Vergnole, B. Gauthier, C. Padioleau, M. Hewko, S. Lévesque, and V. Bartulovic, “Surface inspection of hard to reach industrial parts using low coherence interferometry,” Proc. SPIE 6343, 63431Z (2006).
[Crossref]

C. Cristalli, N. Paone, and R. M. Rodríguez, “Mechanical fault detection of electric motors by laser vibrometer and accelerometer measurements,” Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 20(6), 1350–1361 (2006).
[Crossref]

O. T. Strand, D. R. Goosman, C. Martinez, T. L. Whitworth, and W. W. Kuhlow, “Compact system for high-speed velocimetry using heterodyne techniques,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 77(8), 083108 (2006).
[Crossref]

P. Castellini, M. Martarelli, and E. P. Tomasini, “Laser Doppler vibrometry: development of advanced solutions answering to technology’s needs,” Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 20(6), 1265–1285 (2006).
[Crossref]

K. Shi, S. H. Nam, P. Li, S. Yin, and Z. Liu, “Wavelength division multiplexed confocal microscopy using supercontinuum,” Opt. Commun. 263(2), 156–162 (2006).
[Crossref]

J. Pehkonen, P. Palojärvi, and J. Kostamovaara, “Receiver channel with resonance-based timing detection for a laser range finder,” IEEE Trans. Circ. Syst. 53(3), 569–577 (2006).
[Crossref]

2005 (5)

E. Shafir and G. Berkovic, “Multi-wavelength fiber optic displacement sensing,” Proc. SPIE 5952, 59520X (2005).
[Crossref]

M. A. Choma, K. Hsu, and J. A. Izatt, “Swept source optical coherence tomography using an all-fiber 1300 nm ring laser source,” J. Biomed. Opt. 10(4), 044009 (2005).
[Crossref]

H.-J. Yang, J. Deibel, S. Nyberg, and K. Riles, “High-precision absolute distance and vibration measurement with frequency scanned interferometry,” Appl. Opt. 44(19), 3937–3944 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

X. Dong, X. Yang, C.-L. Zhao, L. Ding, P. Shum, and N. Q. Ngo, “A novel temperature insensitive fiber Bragg grating sensor for displacement measurement,” Smart Mater. Struct. 14(7-N), 10 (2005).
[Crossref]

T. Thiel, J. Meissner, and U. Kliebold, “Autonomous crack response monitoring on civil structures with fiber Bragg grating displacement sensors,” Proc. SPIE 5855, 1068–1071 (2005).
[Crossref]

2004 (5)

L. Scalise, Y. Yu, G. Giuliani, G. Plantier, and T. Bosch, “Self-mixing laser diode velocimetry: application to vibration and velocity measurement,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 53(1), 223–232 (2004).
[Crossref]

W. Drexler, “Ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography,” J. Biomed. Opt. 9(1), 47–74 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

P. A. Coe, D. F. Howell, and R. B. Nickerson, “Frequency scanning interferometry in ATLAS: remote, multiple, simultaneous and precise distance measurements in a hostile environment,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 15(11), 2175–2187 (2004).
[Crossref]

J. Cohen-Sabban, J. Gaillard-Groleas, and P. J. Crepin, “Extended-field confocal imaging for 3D surface sensing,” Proc. SPIE 5252, 366–371 (2004).
[Crossref]

J. R. Garzón, J. Meneses, G. Tribillion, T. Gharbi, and A. Plata, “Chromatic confocal microscopy by means of continuum light generated through a standard single mode fiber,” J. Opt. A, Pure Appl. Opt. 6(6), 544–548 (2004).
[Crossref]

2003 (1)

2002 (2)

G. Giuliani, M. Norgia, S. Donati, and T. Bosch, “Laser diode self-mixing technique for sensing applications,” J. Opt. A, Pure Appl. Opt. 4(6), S283–S294 (2002).
[Crossref]

J. Liu, K. Yamazaki, Y. Zhou, and S. Matsumiya, “A reflective fiber optic sensor for surface roughness in-process measurement,” J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 124(3), 515–522 (2002).
[Crossref]

2001 (5)

M.-C. Amann, T. Bosch, M. Lescure, R. Myllylä, and M. Rioux, “Laser ranging: a critical review of usual techniques for distance measurement,” Opt. Eng. 40(1), 10–19 (2001).
[Crossref]

P. M. B. S. Girao, O. A. Postolache, J. A. B. Faria, and J. M. C. D. Pereira, “An overview and a contribution to the optical measurement of linear displacement,” IEEE Sens. J. 1(4), 322–331 (2001).
[Crossref]

R. Lange and P. Seitz, “Solid-state time-of-flight range camera,” IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 37(3), 390–397 (2001).
[Crossref]

E. Shafir and G. Berkovic, “Compact fibre optic probe for simultaneous distance and velocity determination,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 12, 943–947 (2001).

M. Harris, G. Constant, and C. Ward, “Continuous-wave bistatic laser Doppler wind sensor,” Appl. Opt. 40(9), 1501–1506 (2001).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2000 (5)

J. E. Nettleton, B. W. Schilling, D. N. Barr, and J. S. Lei, “Monoblock laser for a low-cost, eyesafe, microlaser range finder,” Appl. Opt. 39(15), 2428–2432 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. G. Fujimoto, C. Pitris, S. A. Boppart, and M. E. Brezinski, “Optical coherence tomography: an emerging technology for biomedical imaging and optical biopsy,” Neoplasia 2(1/2), 9–25 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

P. Patwari, N. J. Weissman, S. A. Boppart, C. Jesser, D. Stamper, J. G. Fujimoto, and M. E. Brezinski, “Assessment of coronary plaque with optical coherence tomography and high-frequency ultrasound,” Am. J. Cardiol. 85(5), 641–644 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

F. Chen, G. M. Brown, and M. Song, “Overview of three-dimensional shape measurement using optical methods,” Opt. Eng. 39(1), 10–22 (2000).
[Crossref]

L. Yang, G. Wang, J. Wang, and Z. Xu, “Surface profilometry with a fibre optical confocal scanning microscope,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 11(12), 1786–1791 (2000).
[Crossref]

1999 (4)

J. Zheng and S. Albin, “Self-referenced reflective intensity modulated fiber optic displacement sensor,” Opt. Eng. 38(2), 227–232 (1999).
[Crossref]

J. M. Schmitt, “Optical coherence tomography (OCT): a review,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 5(4), 1205–1215 (1999).
[Crossref]

J. A. Stone, A. Stejskal, and L. Howard, “Absolute interferometry with a 670-nm external cavity diode laser,” Appl. Opt. 38(28), 5981–5994 (1999).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

S. Zhang, S. B. Lee, X. Fang, and S. S. Choi, “In-fiber grating sensors,” Opt. Lasers Eng. 32(5), 405–418 (1999).
[Crossref]

1998 (7)

F. Gouaux, N. Servagent, and T. Bosch, “Absolute distance measurement with an optical feedback interferometer,” Appl. Opt. 37(28), 6684–6689 (1998).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. S. Massa, G. S. Buller, A. C. Walker, S. Cova, M. Umasuthan, and A. M. Wallace, “Time-of-flight optical ranging system based on time-correlated single-photon counting,” Appl. Opt. 37(31), 7298–7304 (1998).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Y. Malet and G. Y. Sirat, “Conoscopic holography application: multipurpose rangefinders,” J. Opt. 29(3), 183–187 (1998).
[Crossref]

C. Pitris, M. E. Brezinski, B. E. Bouma, G. J. Tearney, J. F. Southern, and J. G. Fujimoto, “High resolution imaging of the upper respiratory tract with optical coherence tomography: a feasibility study,” Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157(5 Pt 1), 1640–1644 (1998).
[PubMed]

D. Xiaoli and S. Katuo, “High-accuracy absolute distance measurement by means of wavelength scanning heterodyne interferometry,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 9(7), 1031–1035 (1998).
[Crossref]

C. T. Allen, K. Shi, and R. G. Plumb, “The use of ground-penetrating radar with a cooperative target,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sensing 36(5), 1821–1825 (1998).
[Crossref]

H.-J. Jordan, M. Wegner, and H. Tiziani, “Highly accurate non-contact characterization of engineering surfaces using confocal microscopy,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 9(7), 1142–1151 (1998).
[Crossref]

1997 (3)

K.-C. Fan, “A non-contact automatic measurement for free-form surface profiles,” Comput. Integrated Manuf. Syst. 10(4), 277–285 (1997).
[Crossref]

P. Li, H. Zhang, Y. Zhao, and L.-Z. Yang, “New compensation method of an optical fiber reflective displacement sensor,” Proc. SPIE 3241, 474–476 (1997).
[Crossref]

A. Othonos, “Fiber Bragg gratings,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68(12), 4309–4341 (1997).
[Crossref]

1996 (5)

G. J. Tearney, S. A. Boppart, B. E. Bouma, M. E. Brezinski, N. J. Weissman, J. F. Southern, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Scanning single-mode fiber optic catheter-endoscope for optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 21(7), 543–545 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. Shimamoto and K. Tanaka, “Geometrical analysis of an optical fiber bundle displacement sensor,” Appl. Opt. 35(34), 6767–6774 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. Wang, “Reflective fibre optical displacement sensors for the inspection of tilted objects,” Opt. Quantum Electron. 28(11), 1655–1668 (1996).
[Crossref]

Y.-J. Rao and D. A. Jackson, “Recent progress in fibre optic low-coherence interferometry,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 7(7), 981–999 (1996).
[Crossref]

A. F. Fercher, “Optical coherence tomography,” J. Biomed. Opt. 1(2), 157–173 (1996).
[Crossref]

1995 (3)

A. F. Fercher, C. K. Hitzenberger, G. Kamp, and S. Y. Elzaiat, “Measurement of intraocular distances by backscattering spectral interferometry,” Opt. Commun. 117(1–2), 43–48 (1995).
[Crossref]

S. Donati, G. Giuliani, and S. Merlo, “Laser diode feedback interferometer for measurement of displacements without ambiguity,” IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 31(1), 113–119 (1995).
[Crossref]

W. H. Ko, K.-M. Chang, and G.-J. Hwang, “A fiber-optic reflective displacement micrometer,” Sens. Actuators A Phys. 49(1–2), 51–55 (1995).
[Crossref]

1994 (2)

1993 (1)

1992 (2)

T. Dabbs and M. Glass, “Fiber-optic confocal microscope: FOCON,” Appl. Opt. 31(16), 3030–3035 (1992).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

R. Juškaitis and T. Wilson, “Imaging in reciprocal fibre-optic based confocal scanning microscopes,” Opt. Commun. 92(4–6), 315–325 (1992).
[Crossref]

1991 (4)

Y. Libo and Q. Anping, “Fiber-optic diaphragm pressure sensor with automatic intensity compensation,” Sens. Actuators A Phys. 28(1), 29–33 (1991).
[Crossref]

D. Huang, E. A. Swanson, C. P. Lin, J. S. Schuman, W. G. Stinson, W. Chang, M. R. Hee, T. Flotte, K. Gregory, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Optical coherence tomography,” Science 254(5035), 1178–1181 (1991).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

B. L. Danielson and C. Y. Boisrobert, “Absolute optical ranging using low coherence interferometry,” Appl. Opt. 30(21), 2975–2979 (1991).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

V. Gusmeroli and M. Martinelli, “Distributed laser Doppler velocimeter,” Opt. Lett. 16(17), 1358–1360 (1991).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1990 (1)

A. Koch and R. Ulrich, “Fiber-optic displacement sensor with 0.02 µm resolution by white-light interferometry,” Sens. Actuators A Phys. 25(1-3), 201–207 (1990).
[Crossref]

1989 (3)

C. P. Cockshott and S. J. Pacaud, “Compensation of an optical fibre reflective sensor,” Sens. Actuators 17(1–2), 167–171 (1989).
[Crossref]

Z. Ji and M. C. Leu, “Design of optical triangulation devices,” Opt. Laser Technol. 21(5), 339–341 (1989).
[Crossref]

W. W. Morey, G. Meltz, and W. H. Glenn, “Fiber optic Bragg grating sensors,” Proc. SPIE 1169, 98–107 (1989).

1988 (1)

P. J. Besl, “Active optical range imaging sensors,” Mach. Vis. Appl. 1(2), 127–152 (1988).
[Crossref]

1985 (3)

M. Johnson, “Fiber displacement sensors for metrology and control,” Opt. Eng. 24, 961–965 (1985).

G. Beheim and K. Fritsch, “Remote displacement measurements using a laser diode,” Electron. Lett. 21(3), 93–94 (1985).
[Crossref]

G. Sirat and D. Psaltis, “Conoscopic holography,” Opt. Lett. 10(1), 4–6 (1985).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1984 (1)

1982 (1)

A. P. Shepherd and G. L. Riedel, “Continuous measurement of intestinal mucosal blood flow by laser-Doppler velocimetry,” Am. J. Physiol. 242(6), G668–G672 (1982).
[PubMed]

1981 (1)

H.-T. Shang, “Chromatic dispersion measurement by white-light interferometry on metre-length single-mode optical fibre,” Electron. Lett. 17(17), 603–605 (1981).
[Crossref]

1980 (1)

J. W. Bilbro, “Atmospheric laser Doppler velocimetry—An overview,” Opt. Eng. 19, 533–542 (1980).

1979 (2)

W. F. Hemsing, “Velocity sensing interferometer (VISAR) modification,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 50(1), 73–78 (1979).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

R. O. Cook and C. W. Hamm, “Fiber optic lever displacement transducer,” Appl. Opt. 18(19), 3230–3241 (1979).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1978 (1)

Y. Yakimovsky and R. Cunningham, “A system for extracting three-dimensional measurements from a stereo pair of TV cameras,” Comput. Graphics Image Process. 7(2), 195–210 (1978).
[Crossref]

1977 (1)

D. Nitzan, A. E. Brain, and R. O. Duda, “The measurement and use of registered reflectance and range data in scene analysis,” Proc. IEEE 65(2), 206–220 (1977).
[Crossref]

1974 (1)

J. A. Powell, “A simple two fiber optical displacement sensor,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 45(2), 302–303 (1974).
[Crossref]

1973 (1)

1972 (1)

L. M. Barker and R. E. Hollenbach, “Laser interferometer for measuring high velocities of any reflecting surface,” J. Appl. Phys. 43(11), 4669–4675 (1972).
[Crossref]

1971 (1)

R. K. Raney, “Synthetic aperture imaging radar and moving targets,” IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst. AES-7(3), 499–505 (1971).
[Crossref]

1968 (1)

K. A. Browning and R. Wexler, “The determination of kinematic properties of a wind field using Doppler radar,” J. Appl. Meteorol. 7(1), 105–113 (1968).
[Crossref]

1967 (2)

C. Menadier, C. Kissinger, and H. Adkins, “The fotonic sensor,” Instruments Control Syst. 40, 114–120 (1967).

G. J. Jako, K. E. Hickman, L. A. Maroti, and S. Holly, “Recording of the movement of the human basilar membrane,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 41(6), 1578–9999 (1967).
[Crossref]

1965 (1)

J. W. Foreman, E. W. George, and R. D. Lewis, “Measurement of localized flow velocities in gases with a laser Doppler flowmeter,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 7(4), 77–78 (1965).
[Crossref]

1964 (1)

Y. Yeh and H. Z. Cummins, “Localized fluid flow measurements with an He–Ne laser spectrometer,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 4(10), 176–178 (1964).
[Crossref]

Abou-Zeid, A.

Adkins, H.

C. Menadier, C. Kissinger, and H. Adkins, “The fotonic sensor,” Instruments Control Syst. 40, 114–120 (1967).

Albin, S.

J. Zheng and S. Albin, “Self-referenced reflective intensity modulated fiber optic displacement sensor,” Opt. Eng. 38(2), 227–232 (1999).
[Crossref]

Allen, C. T.

C. T. Allen, K. Shi, and R. G. Plumb, “The use of ground-penetrating radar with a cooperative target,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sensing 36(5), 1821–1825 (1998).
[Crossref]

Alzahrani, K.

Amann, M.-C.

M.-C. Amann, T. Bosch, M. Lescure, R. Myllylä, and M. Rioux, “Laser ranging: a critical review of usual techniques for distance measurement,” Opt. Eng. 40(1), 10–19 (2001).
[Crossref]

Ancona, A.

Anping, Q.

Y. Libo and Q. Anping, “Fiber-optic diaphragm pressure sensor with automatic intensity compensation,” Sens. Actuators A Phys. 28(1), 29–33 (1991).
[Crossref]

Appelbaum, G.

E. Shafir, G. Berkovic, Y. Horovitz, G. Appelbaum, E. Moshe, E. Horovitz, A. Skutelski, M. Werdiger, L. Perelmutter, and M. Sudai, “Noncontact ballistic motion measurement using a fiber-optic confocal sensor,” J. Appl. Phys. 101(9), 093107 (2007).
[Crossref]

Azimi, P.

H. Golnabi and P. Azimi, “Design and operation of a double-fiber displacement sensor,” Opt. Commun. 281(4), 614–620 (2008).
[Crossref]

Baier, H.

S. Rapp, L.-H. Kang, J.-H. Han, U. C. Mueller, and H. Baier, “Displacement field estimation for a two-dimensional structure using fiber Bragg grating sensors,” Smart Mater. Struct. 18(2), 025006 (2009).
[Crossref]

Barker, L. M.

L. M. Barker and R. E. Hollenbach, “Laser interferometer for measuring high velocities of any reflecting surface,” J. Appl. Phys. 43(11), 4669–4675 (1972).
[Crossref]

Barr, D. N.

Bartulovic, V.

M. L. Dufour, G. Lamouche, S. Vergnole, B. Gauthier, C. Padioleau, M. Hewko, S. Lévesque, and V. Bartulovic, “Surface inspection of hard to reach industrial parts using low coherence interferometry,” Proc. SPIE 6343, 63431Z (2006).
[Crossref]

Beheim, G.

G. Beheim and K. Fritsch, “Remote displacement measurements using a laser diode,” Electron. Lett. 21(3), 93–94 (1985).
[Crossref]

Berkovic, G.

E. Shafir, M. Shtilman, E. Naor, and G. Berkovic, “Thermally independent fibre optic absolute distance measurement system based on white light interferometry,” IET Optoelectron. 5(2), 68–71 (2011).
[Crossref]

G. Berkovic, E. Shafir, M. A. Golub, M. Bril, and V. Shurman, “Multiple-fiber and multiplewavelength confocal sensing with diffractive optical elements,” IEEE Sensors 8(7), 1089–1092 (2008).
[Crossref]

E. Shafir, G. Berkovic, Y. Horovitz, G. Appelbaum, E. Moshe, E. Horovitz, A. Skutelski, M. Werdiger, L. Perelmutter, and M. Sudai, “Noncontact ballistic motion measurement using a fiber-optic confocal sensor,” J. Appl. Phys. 101(9), 093107 (2007).
[Crossref]

E. Shafir and G. Berkovic, “Expanding the realm of fiber optic confocal sensing for probing position, displacement, and velocity,” Appl. Opt. 45(30), 7772–7777 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

E. Shafir and G. Berkovic, “Multi-wavelength fiber optic displacement sensing,” Proc. SPIE 5952, 59520X (2005).
[Crossref]

E. Shafir and G. Berkovic, “Compact fibre optic probe for simultaneous distance and velocity determination,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 12, 943–947 (2001).

G. Berkovic, S. Zilberman, and E. Shafir, “Size effect in fiber optic displacement sensors,” in Optical Sensors, OSA Technical Digest (online) (Optical Society of America, 2012) SM4F.6.

Besl, P. J.

P. J. Besl, “Active optical range imaging sensors,” Mach. Vis. Appl. 1(2), 127–152 (1988).
[Crossref]

Bezombes, F.

Biedermann, B. R.

Bilbro, J. W.

J. W. Bilbro, “Atmospheric laser Doppler velocimetry—An overview,” Opt. Eng. 19, 533–542 (1980).

Bogue, R.

R. Bogue, “Three-dimensional measurements: a review of technologies and applications,” Sensor Rev. 30(2), 102–106 (2010).
[Crossref]

Boisrobert, C. Y.

Boltryk, P. J.

P. J. Boltryk, M. Hill, J. W. McBride, and A. Nascè, “A comparison of precision optical displacement sensors for the 3D measurement of complex surface profiles,” Sens. Actuators A Phys. 142(1), 2–11 (2008).
[Crossref]

Boppart, S. A.

P. Patwari, N. J. Weissman, S. A. Boppart, C. Jesser, D. Stamper, J. G. Fujimoto, and M. E. Brezinski, “Assessment of coronary plaque with optical coherence tomography and high-frequency ultrasound,” Am. J. Cardiol. 85(5), 641–644 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

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P. M. B. S. Girao, O. A. Postolache, J. A. B. Faria, and J. M. C. D. Pereira, “An overview and a contribution to the optical measurement of linear displacement,” IEEE Sens. J. 1(4), 322–331 (2001).
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M. Norgia, G. Giuliani, and S. Donati, “Absolute distance measurement with improved accuracy using laser diode self-mixing interferometry in a closed loop,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 56(5), 1894–1900 (2007).
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D. Huang, E. A. Swanson, C. P. Lin, J. S. Schuman, W. G. Stinson, W. Chang, M. R. Hee, T. Flotte, K. Gregory, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Optical coherence tomography,” Science 254(5035), 1178–1181 (1991).
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Howell, D. F.

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M. A. Choma, K. Hsu, and J. A. Izatt, “Swept source optical coherence tomography using an all-fiber 1300 nm ring laser source,” J. Biomed. Opt. 10(4), 044009 (2005).
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D. Huang, E. A. Swanson, C. P. Lin, J. S. Schuman, W. G. Stinson, W. Chang, M. R. Hee, T. Flotte, K. Gregory, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Optical coherence tomography,” Science 254(5035), 1178–1181 (1991).
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M. A. Choma, K. Hsu, and J. A. Izatt, “Swept source optical coherence tomography using an all-fiber 1300 nm ring laser source,” J. Biomed. Opt. 10(4), 044009 (2005).
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Figures (16)

Figure 1
Figure 1 Illustration of the relationship between an absolute distance measurement and derived quantities of displacement, surface profile speed, and vibration.

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Figure 2
Figure 2 Illustration of a fiber optic intensity sensor for distance measurements. (a) Two-fiber sensor, showing the object and the operational principle (b) Various geometries for fiber bundle sensor heads, copied with permission from [6].

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Figure 3
Figure 3 Typical signal versus distance response for an intensity-based fiber optic displacement sensor (copied with permission from [14]).

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Figure 4
Figure 4 Demonstration of possible sensitivity of intensity-based fiber optic displacement sensor to the tilt angle of specular or shiny objects (e.g., a mirror). The lower illustration shows why a mirror at distance d will specularly reflect more light into the receiving fiber at a tilt angle tan θ = a / d than at normal incidence. a, separation of fiber centers.

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Figure 5
Figure 5 Normalized measured responses of three different fiber sensors at constant distance of 1.5 mm from a machined aluminum metal target (with <3  µ m surface roughness), while the target is translated laterally. The nominal distance to the target remains constant, but different areas of the target are exposed to the input light.

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Figure 6
Figure 6 Surface roughness model, showing light rays reflected specularly according to the local surface normal. The receiving fiber(s) collect different amounts of light from different sections of the surface.

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Figure 7
Figure 7 The effect of lateral translation of various target objects relative to the sensor with a single-mode transmitting fiber and a 100 µm core receiving fiber. Results are shown for three target objects: a mirror, a standard white scattering surface (Labsphere USRS-99-010), and the machined metal surface of Fig. 5.

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Figure 8
Figure 8 Principle of optical triangulation sensor. The unknown distance, D, is determined from the known distances E , F and the measured value of G—the distance to the pixel in the position sensitive detector (PSD) recording the image of the laser spot on the measured object.

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Figure 9
Figure 9 (a) Triangulation based on measurements of angles of view θ P and θ Q from two known observation points, P and Q. The object is located at the intersection of the two lines drawn. (b) Triangulation based on measurement of distances Z P and Z Q from two known observation points, P and Q. The object is located at the intersection of the two arcs drawn.

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Figure 10
Figure 10 (a) Pulsed time-of-flight measurement showing three regimes where the time of flight is (i) much longer, (ii) similar to, and (iii) shorter than the pulse width. For nanosecond pulses these cases correspond to distances (in air) of >50 m, a few meters, and <1 m, respectively. (b) Intensity modulated time-of-flight is an alternative method suitable for distances in range (ii). The phase shift is indicated by the double-headed arrow.

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Figure 11
Figure 11 Principle of fiber optic monochromatic and polychromatic confocal sensing. (i) Monochromatic confocal sensor with an object at the image plane. (ii) Monochromatic confocal sensor with an object displaced from the image plane (adapted from [49]). (iii) Polychromatic sensor where the image plane position varies with wavelength and a different wavelength will satisfy the confocal geometry for each object position.

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Figure 12
Figure 12 Basic setup for WLI and typical interference pattern as a function of the reference arm mirror movement. A low-coherence source is used, in this case a fiber-coupled 1.5  µ m superluminescent diode with 60 nm spectral width. The interferogram shows an oscillation period of half the wavelength, and width corresponding to the coherence length of the source.

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Figure 13
Figure 13 Measurement of a vibrating object by chromatic confocal sensor.

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Figure 14
Figure 14 Demonstration of fiber-optic-assisted Doppler velocimetry. (a) The experimental setup, using a pigtailed coherent 1.5 µm laser source and a moving mirror. (b) Detector output measured by an oscilloscope for a motion of 100 µm/s. (c) Detector output measured by an electronic spectrum analyzer for a motion of 100 µm/s (black), 50 µm/s (blue), and 25 µm/s (red).

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Figure 15
Figure 15 Schematic diagram showing how a FBG can be used to monitor displacement of the object. The red dots denote that the fiber is glued as shown to the object and a fixed support.

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Figure 16
Figure 16 Comparison of typical resolutions and working distances of the optical distance measurement techniques discussed in this article. The entry for triangulation is divided into a filled region, corresponding to measurement from a single observation point, and a shaded region for multiple observation points.

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Equations (5)

Equations on this page are rendered with MathJax. Learn more.

l c = λ 2 Δ λ ,
Δ f f = 2 ν c or λ ⋅ Δ f = 2 ν .
L = ( N + ϕ / 2 π ) λ .
n ( λ 0 , T 0 ) = n ( λ 0 + Δ λ , T 0 + Δ T ) ,
Δ λ ⋅ ∂ n ∂ λ = − Δ T ⋅ ∂ n ∂ T .

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